Edwin F. Jackson

Campus Safety Office

Thomas House

422-5779

CONTENTS

Administration 4

Nature of Radiation 5

Ordering and Receiving 6

Inventory, Use and Disposal 7

Training 8

Contamination Control 9

Working with Animals 10

Iodinations and Bioassays 10

Neutron Howitzer 11

Emergency Procedures 11

Certification Form 12

Inspection Form 13

User Authorization Form 14

Facilities Authorization Form 15

Tracer Study Guide and Exam 16-29

Gauge Study Guide and Exam 30-44

ADMINISTRATION

A. The president of the University is responsible for all activities at Brigham Young University and is, therefore, ultimately responsible for radiation safety. It is his policy that all programs involving radiation conform to federal and state guidelines and that exposures to personnel be kept to the lowest levels that are reasonably achievable.

B. The Assistant Administrative Vice President for Human Resource Services represents the president in administering radiation safety programs and in upholding University policy with regard to radiation safety.

C. The Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) administers the license for radioactive materials and assures compliance with federal, state, and University requirements concerning the use of radioactive materials or radiation-generating equipment. He also assists in training persons who may be potentially exposed to radiation, consults University personnel in proper safety practices, and supervises emergency procedures in case of serious accidents or spills of radioactive materials. RSO responsibilities include the following:

1. Reviewing the safety of new uses of radioactive material

2. Laboratory inspections, which are conducted monthly

3. Maintaining Compliance with license conditions and DRC rules

4. Receipt of packages

5. Maintaining an inventory of all radioactive material on campus

6. All radioactive waste disposal

7. Maintaining the radioactive waste repository in B-64. B64 also serves as

storage area for unused radioactive material.

8. Dosimetry and dosimetry records

9. Instrument calibration

10. Leak checks at six month intervals for applicable sealed sources.

11. Training and testing of people using radioactive materials or frequenting areas in which radioactive materials are used or stored.

12. Supervises the decontamination in case of an accident

13 Maintains records or surveys, radiation monitoring, radwaste disposal, receipt

and transfers of radioactive material.

D. Qualified Principal Investigators approved by the RSO will be appointed and given responsibility and jurisdiction over specific laboratories and/or research projects. They will be responsible for the orientation, training (in accordance with "C" on page 4), lab procedures, and the ultimate safety within their areas. It is the responsibility of the PI to insure compliance with all applicable rules and policies in his or her laboratory. Specific requirements include:

1. No person that has not been trained as specified in the Radiation Safety Handbook shall be permitted to use radioactive materials.

2. Radioactive waste shall be prepared as specified.

3. Appropriate records are maintained

4. Appropriate surveys are performed

E. Users of radioactive materials or radiation-generating equipment must be adequately trained in radiation safety for the work they perform.

F. The Radiation Safety Committee (RSC) is comprised of at least four members. One faculty member from the College of Biological and Agricultural Science. One faculty member from the College of Physical and Mathematical Science, the Director of Safety and the RSO. A minimum of 75% of committee members constitute a quorum. The Radiation Safety Committee meets at least once each semester. All changes in policy or procedure must be approved by the RSC. policies, procedures, and annual audits. In addition the Radiation Safety Committee is responsible for the performance and review of annual Radiation Safety Audits. In this capacity the RSC may direct principal investigators, professional auditors and the Safety Office to perform appropriate aspects of the audit.

NATURE OF RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY

A. Radiation can be classified as ionizing or non-ionizing radiation.

Ionizing radiation is of sufficient energy to ionize air or other material through which it passes. Radioactive materials produce alpha, beta, and gamma radiation which is ionizing. X-rays produced by X-ray machines, particle accelerators, or high energy vacuum tubes are also ionizing. Since neutrons produce ionizing radiation when they interact with matter, they are also classified as ionizing radiation.

Non-ionizing radiation, such as microwaves, laser light, heat, radio waves, and ultra sonics, does not ionize the material through which it passes. Different techniques are used for detecting and measuring non-ionizing radiation, and the health effects are different than those caused by ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing radiation will not be discussed in this booklet and is not currently part of the radiation safety program.

B Radioactive materials spontaneously emit alpha, beta, gamma, or neutron particles from the nucleus of the unstable atoms making up the material. The nature of the emissions is a property of the specific atom involved. The activity of a material is measured in terms of millicuries (1 mCi is 2.2 x 109 disintegrations per minute dpm), microcuries (1 uCi is 2.2 x 106 dpm) or Becquerel (1 disintegration per second). The activity of a radioactive material changes with time, with the half life of a material being the time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay away. The half life is a property of the radioactive material, whereas the activity is a property of the quantity of radioactive material in the sample.

C. Radioactivity is detected by a device such as an ion chamber, Geiger counter, scintillation counter, or thermoluminescent device which measures the number of ionizations produced by the ionizing radiation as it passes through the detector of the measuring device. Since radiation-measuring instruments are sensitive to the type and energy of the radiation they were designed to measure, specific instruments may be good for one application but not for another. A Geiger counter is usually the best instrument for determining the presence of beta radiation, a solid scintillator is usually the best instrument for detecting photons, and an ionization chamber is usually the best instrument for determining a photon field. The RSO should be contacted if there is a question about a particular type of measurement.

D. The health effects of ionizing radiation are determined by the damage done to living cells as radiation passes through the body. This effect is measured in rems. The normal exposure to persons from natural background radiation sources is 100-200 millirems per year. A radiation worker is allowed an occupational dose of .05 Sieverts per year ( 5 rem). Whereas no adverse effects to humans have been identified with exposures as low as the allowable occupational dose, the University policy is to keep exposure as low as is reasonably achievable. A dose exceeding one millisievert (100 mrem) whole body exposure per quarter will be investigated by the RSO.

USE OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

A. Ordering and Receiving Radioactive Materials

Only persons approved by the RSO may order radioactive materials.

All purchase requisitions must contain a "Special Handling" notation so that only the authorized purchasing agent will place the order.

All radioactive materials must be directed to the BYU Receiving Department.

All packages received with a White I, Yellow II or Yellow III DOT label will be checked for external contamination. All packages containing a Type A quantity of radioactive material shall be monitored for radiation levels. Type A quantities are listed in 49 CFR 173.435. For the following commonly received materials the Type A quantities are:

3H v20 curies

14C 60 curies

35S 60 curies

32P 30 curies

51Cr 600 curies

125I 70 curies

Upon receiving the package from the Radiation Safety Officer, laboratory personnel who are wearing lab smocks, gloves, and other protective clothing as required should monitor the packaged material for contamination by appropriate means. The inner container should always be opened in a operating fume hood. If removable radioactive contamination is detected the Radiation Safety Officer should be notified immediately.

B. Inventory, Use and Disposal of Radioactive Materials

When radioactive materials are received, the RSO will log the receipt.

Individual investigators receiving the material will log the receipt in their radioactive material log book.

The following procedures should be followed for disposing of wastes in research laboratories using radioactive materials:

1. Nonradioactive waste: All nonradioactive wastes will be discarded in the ordinary trash or liquid disposal system. Please segregate nonradioactive from contaminated wastes.

2. Liquid Waste: Liquid wastes that are water soluble should be discarded into the sanitary sewer in quantities not exceeding the following daily allowances: 1000 uCi tritium, 100 uCi carbon-14, 100 uCi sulfur-35, 100 uCi phosphorus 32, 1 uCi iodine-125. A record of the chemical form of the nuclide (demonstrating solubility) and the quantity of the discharge shall be kept in the laboratory. All liquid waste submitted to the RSO for disposal must be in a strong liquid tight plastic container. No metal or glass containers will be accepted by the RSO without explicit permission.

3. Scintillation Cocktail. Contaminated liquid scintillation cocktail with activity measured above background should be disposed of by contacting the RSO. Non-contaminated cocktail should be discarded as nonradioactive. LSC vials should be placed upright in the vial box, or placed in a liquid tight container. Vials placed in a plastic bag will not be accepted.

Xylene or toluene based liquid scintillation fluids will be surcharged to the department

starting with the fall semester of 1994. Biodegradable cocktails will be accepted without charge. The charge will be 200 dollars per case of vials or 50 dollars per gallon of fluid.

4. Dry radioactive waste. Dry waste should have all radioactive tags or labels removed then be placed in a plastic bag. The plastic bag should then be closed, a radioactive tag or label placed on the outside of the bag, and the nuclide and quantity of material in the bag should be noted. Materials with a half life of less than 90 days will be disposed of through decay in storage. These materials should not be mixed with long lived isotopes. Mixing of carbon fourteen or tritium waste with short half-life wastes will result in a surcharge to the department.

5. Mixed Waste. Any procedure that will result in creating a waste that is both a hazardous chemical waste and a radioactive waste must be authorized by the RSO. Failure to comply with this will result in a charge to the department of 50 dollars per gallon of liquid waste.

6. Animals and tissues. Any project involving administration of radioactive material to animals must be approved by the RSO.

C. Training Users of Radioactive Materials

Those persons handling only exempt quantities of radioactive materials as defined in 10 CFR 30.71 must be trained by their supervisor and work under the supervisor's direction.

Persons using up to 10 millicuries of radioactive materials in loose form or greater under quantities in sealed form who are under the direct supervision of a Principal Investigator must take and pass, with a minimum score of 80%, the Radiation Safety Examination. Principal Investigators shall be approved by the RSO and the Radiation Safety Committee. A PI with substantial background may be authorized to begin operation on a temporary basis with the approval of the RSO.

Any person using radioactive materials in quantities greater than 10 millicuries in loose form must receive special approval from the RSO.

Training shall include the nature of radiation protection, radioactivity measurement and monitoring techniques, mathematical calculations basic to the use and measurement of radioactivity, and the biological effect of radiation. Also, all users of radioisotopes should have read Division of Radiation Control Rules R313-15 and R-313-18, and Regulatory Guide 8.29.

Nuclear Gauge users shall pass the Nuclear Gauge Exam or pass a commercial Nuclear Gauge Training Program. The minimum passing score on the exam is 80%. Copies of training records shall be sent to the RSO. The PI will maintain copies of training records for users under his/her direction. Students who have not passed the exam may use the gauge under the direct physical supervision of an authorized user for a limited number of training exercises. Teaching assistants supervising the use of gauges shall be properly trained and authorized. TA's shall be required to pass the gauge safety exam before supervising the use of a gauge. It is the responsibility of the PI in charge of a gauge to see that no unauthorized person uses a gauge.

D. Laboratory Procedures

(To include the following as a minimum:)

1. Wear lab smock or apron, gloves, and other protective clothing as required when handling radioactive materials.

2. Use mechanical pipetting and measuring devices. DO NOT use mouth-operated equipment.

3. Keep food and cosmetics out of laboratory areas. NO EATING or drinking in work areas.

4. Wash hands frequently when handling radioactive materials, and always before eating.

5. Wipe up spills immediately and contact the RSO if the spill involves more than one microcurie of radioactive material.

6. Check work area for contamination at the close of each working day. Decontaminate BEFORE leaving. An area is termed contaminated if there is an above background count.

7. Report all accidents and spills to the Principal Investigator.

8. Personal monitoring devices should be worn by all persons who may be exposed to more than 10 % of the allowable annual exposure.

E. Contamination Control

The greatest hazard of radioactive materials used in loose form at BYU is allowing contamination to spread through careless working habits. The following procedures shall be followed whenever radioactive materials are used:

1. Check container of stock solutions for external contamination. Contamination is easily picked up on fingers from vials of stock solutions.

2. Use a drip pan or soaker paper to contain spills and facilitate cleanups.

3. Surveys: Wipe up spills and check for contamination by surveying the area with an appropriate detector. This will usually be a thin window Geiger counter. The window of the counter must be close to the surface being counted (within one centimeter) and must be moved slowly over the area being checked. For tritium a thin chem wipe should be rubbed on the surface and then be placed in LSC cocktail and counted. Always remember to check hands, lab benches, floor, door handles, computers, telephones and other easily contaminated surfaces or equipment.

4. Wash glassware or dispose of glassware as contaminated waste in a special waste container.

5. Check for contamination at the conclusion of each project by using a Geiger counter or "swipe" test as appropriate for the procedures and isotopes being used.

6. Wash hands before leaving the work area.

F. Working with Animals

1. Use radioactive materials with animals only in locations approved by the RSO to prevent contamination of uncontrolled areas.

2. DO NOT return animals to the BYU animal care facility. Researchers working with contaminated animals must be responsible for the care and disposal of animals.

3. Beware of contamination caused by biting, spitting, or excretions of the animals.

4. Coordinate disposal of all animals with the RSO.

G. Iodinations and Bioassays for 125I

Use of unbound radioactive iodine in millicurie quantities must be performed in a room authorized for that purpose. An appropriate fume hood will be used. Following the procedure a thyroid scan will be made. The scan will be repeated 24 hours following the procedure. All thyroid bioassays shall be maintained in the laboratory and sent to the RSO. Any bioassay above background will be immediately reported to the RSO.

H: Bioassays

Those persons using more than 100 mCi of tritium gas, tritiated water or more than 10 mCi of tritiated organic compounds, must perform bioassays. These shall be performed at the time of use and weekly thereafter, or until the use of the isotope is discontinued. These will be performed by adding one ml urine to scintillation fluid and counting in a scintillation counter. Any significant activity above background as determined by comparison to appropriate control samples must be reported to the laboratory supervisor and to the RSO. All records of bioassays shall be maintained in the Radiation Safety Manual and they shall also be sent to the RSO.

In addition anyone using more than 5 mCi of any nuclide in a readily absorbed form will be required to consult with the RSO and determine the potential need for bioassays.

I. Use of radioactive material at temporary job sites

Security of the instrument/material is the responsibility of the authorized user. Whenever the instrument is not in the physical presence of the authorized user, it must be locked in the transportation vehicle or similarly secured to prevent unauthorized removal.

Transportation to and from the temporary job site will be in accordance with DOT regulations to include proper label, shipping papers, and packaging (see 49 CFR 172 and 173 specifically 173.401-478). Note all transportation of radioactive materials beyond the University Campus must be cleared by the RSO. This specifically includes nuclear gauges.

I. Use of the Neutron Howitzer

The Neutron Howitzer must always be used under the supervision of a Principal Investigator who is specifically authorized to use the howitzer. This PI must be approved by the Radiation Safety Committee.

The source may not be removed from the howitzer without written approval from the RSO. Any time the source is removed a written record of the purpose, procedure, exposure time and estimated exposure will be maintained.

Individuals who frequently place materials in the beam ports shall wear a ring dosimeter that is read for neutrons.

J. Emergency Procedures

The primary strategic goal in any accident involving radioactive materials is to protect human life and health, following that protecting the environment and property are next in order. In order to accomplish these goals the following should be remembered.

1. Limit exposure. Limit exposure by removing material from yourself or removing yourself from the material. Also warn others by placing signs and barriers around a contaminated area.

2. Get Help. Call 911 or 8-2222. Each of these telephone numbers will get University Police Dispatch. Let the Police know that the incident involves radioactive material. They will get the RSO no mater what time of day or night. Notify the PI in charge of your laboratory if you can safely do so.

3 Limit the Spread. Most health, environmental and property concerns are mitigated if the spread of radioactive material can be limited. Always check feet, hands and clothing to make sure that you do not spread radioactive material by moving from one place to another. When wiping up even small spills remember that a paper towel or sponge can spread contamination over a wide area if not used properly. Spills should be promptly cleaned up. Any spill over one microcurie should be promptly cleaned up under the direct supervision of the RSO. Properly cleaning up spills limits the migration of radioactive material to other locations.

RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL USER INFORMATION CERTIFICATION

Authorized Radioisotope User Date

ISOTOPES USED (3H, 32P, 125I, ETC)

I have read the BYU Radiation Safety Handbook and I know where a copy is located.

I have read the following brief statements on radioactivity:

Basics of Radioactivity Measuring Radioactivity

Background Radiation Radiation Measuring Instruments

Biological Effects of Radiation

I have read Utah Radiation Control Rules chapters R313-15 and R313-18.

I have read Regulatory Guide 8.29, Instruction Concerning Risks From Occupational Radiation Exposure.

I understand that:

A. Laboratory smocks, gloves, and other protective clothing, as required should be worn when handling radioactive materials.

B. Laboratory contamination surveys must be performed at the conclusion of each project and at the end of each working day. Results of these surveys will be logged and records kept.

C. In case of a spill call 2222 if there is no immediate hazard to people, or 911 if there is an immediate threat to any person.

D. The University supports the ALARA principle which is that all exposures to radiation will be kept "As Low As Reasonably Achievable". This can be accomplished by following four basic steps:

1. Distance -- Keep as far away from radiation sources as possible.

2. Time -- Reduce exposure to ionizing radiation to as short a time as possible.

3. Shielding --Use appropriate shielding for protection.

4. Amount -- Use the smallest amount of radioisotopes you can and still accomplish the intended results.

E. Radioactive materials must be locked up or under authorized supervision at all times.

I have been informed of my rights and obligations as an employee working with radioactive materials and understand the University's position with regard to this type of work.

Signed

MONTHLY RADSAF INSPECTION

LABORATORY: DATE:

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR:

Laboratory surveys are performed and logged. Yes No
Survey instrument battery check is logged. Yes No
Count with check source is logged (not applicable to LSC counts) Yes No
Inventory logs are current. Yes No
If P-32, I-125, Cr-51, or other gamma or high energy beta emitters are present dosimetry badges are available for all potentially exposed individuals. Yes No
All individuals working with radioactive materials are properly trained and records kept in manual. Yes No
PI User Authorization and Laboratory Authorization are in the Radiation Safety Manual Yes No
A list of certified users is in the Radiation Safety Manual Yes No
Certification Forms are present for all authorized users Yes No
DRC-04 is properly displayed in the laboratory. Yes No
Laboratory and containers are properly labeled. Yes No
Proper handling procedures are followed. Yes No
Suitable survey instruments or methods are in place and available. (Survey Meter calibrated within the past 6 Months) Yes No
Appropriate security is used. Yes No
5 minute survey of work areas using esp-1 with HP-260 probe
Swipe test results (count).
Waste: All rad labels are removed or defaced before being given to the RSO. All waste is labeled with the date it is prepared for disposal, the nuclide in the container, and the quantity of radioactive material in the package. Different Nuclides are never mixed in the same package without explicit approval from the RSO. Liquid waste is always placed in compatible plastic containers for disposal. Yes No

RADIOLOGICAL USERS AUTHORIZATION FORM

NAME DEPARTMENT

OFFICE NO. LABORATORY

TELEPHONE NO. DEPT. CHAIR

APPROVAL DATE

(Dept. Chairman)

TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE WITH IONIZING RADIATION
Type of Training Where Trained Duration On the Job (X) Formal Course
(X)

Principles and practices of radiation protection

Radioactivity measurement standardization and monitoring techniques and instruments
Mathematics and calculations basic to the use and measurement of radioactivity
Biological effects of radiation

Medical use of isotopes

Please use the back of this form or an additional sheet to list experience with isotopes, exposure records, and other pertinent information. If you have previously been monitored for radiation exposure please list the approximate dates and the address or telephone number of the facility(s).

Approval RSO Date

Approval RSC Date

RADIOLOGICAL FACILITIES AUTHORIZATION FORM

APPLICANT DEPARTMENT
OFFICE # LOCATION
TELEPHONE # DATE
HOME PHONE #

NUCLIDES IN LABORATORY

NUCLIDE CHEMICAL FORM AMOUNT IN FACILITY

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

MAKE MODEL RADIATION DETECTED (BETA,
GAMMA, NEUTRON ETC.)

Make a sketch of the facility including location of storage areas, working areas, sinks hoods, shielding, and any other factors which may influence the safety of the operation (place sketch on a separate sheet).

I will be personally responsible for the safety practices of all radiological activities taking place in this facility.

Applicant's signature Date

Approval Recommended Date (Signed by the RSO)

Approval Date (Signed by RSC Chair)

Radiation Safety Examination study outline. You should read the information mentioned in the user certification found in the radiation laboratory manual in your laboratory. In addition be familiar with the following concepts and terms

1. Tissue Damage and Biological Effects

1.1. DNA may be chemically altered

1.2. Protein bonds may be altered or broken

1.3. Free Radicals alter the structure of biomolecules

1.4. Acute Exposures

1.4.1. Erythema may result above an absorbed dose of 100 rad to the skin.

1.4.2. The LD50 for humans is about 400 rem whole body dose.

1.5. Chronic Effects

1.5.1. Mutagen

1.5.2. Teratogen

1.5.3. Carcinogen

1.6. Dose Response Curve. Understand that regulations are based on a linear no threshold response curve. Below doses allowed by regulations we have no unambiguous experimental data that defines the risk of chronic effects. We assume that such effects exist and that they are a linear function of dose.

1.7 Normal background doses vary from one geographic location to another. All people receive ionizing radiation from potassium 40, as well as carbon 14 and tritium. These are all naturally occurring nuclides that are in the environment. In addition cosmic radiation and radiation from building materials contaminated with naturally occurring nuclides give us a constant exposure to high energy photons. Total natural background exposures to all of these is in the range of 200 to 400 mrem/year in the State of Utah. An area at lower altitude (more shielding from cosmic radiation) and with lower naturally occuring radioactive material would have a lower background.

1.8 External and internal hazards. Generally all alpha emitters and beta emitters with energy less than 70 KEV will not penetrate the dead layers of skin to cause direct physiological damage from outside the body. The materials can do damage if in direct contact with living tissue. High energy beta emitters and photons do present a hazard from outside the body.

2. Ionizing Radiation and its interaction with matter.

2.1. Compton Effect photons interact with electrons producing a free electron and a photon with less energy.

2.2. Bremsstraahlung: Energetic electrons interact with mater, undergo change in momentum and photons are produced.

2.3. Specific Ionization and LET: the measure of ion pairs formed per distance traveled and the energy deposited per unit of distance traveled.

2.4. Pair Production: high energy photons produce a pair of electron like particles.

2.5. Photoelectric effect: A photon reacts with an electron resulting in an energetic electron with no remaining photon.

2.6. Shielding: It is better to shield a high energy beta with low atomic number materials than with high atomic number materials in order to reduce bremsstraahlung.

2.7. Neutrons: Have relatively high mass but no charge. They have good penetrating power.

3. Types of Ionizing Radiation.

3.1. ß origin and characteristics: Origin of a true beta is the nucleus. The beta has low mass but a high charge.

3.1.1. Note range and half layer values

3.1.2. p32 range about .8 cm in unit density

3.2. origin and characteristics: origin in the nucleus, usually very high energy, and very short range. Hence high LET. Quality factor may be 20.

3.3. origin and characteristics: origin in the nucleus, no mass, no charge, very penetrating. External hazard. Quality factor 1 for isotope related energies.

3.4. X-ray: Origin orbital electrons or energetic electrons. Properties same as gamma rays. (Both are termed photons) quality factor 1 for normal energies associated with tracers.

3.5. Neutrons: high mass, no charge penetrate well can be very damaging to tissue, may have a quality factor above 10

4. Waste Disposal

4.1. Decay in Storage: only allowed for nuclides with half live less than 65 days.

4.2. Discharge: We may discharge water soluble radioactive materials in certain quantities. We must be able to demonstrate that the materials are freely soluble. The following daily limits are set:

4.2.1. 3H 1,000 microcuries

4.2.2. 14C 100 microcuries

4.2.3. 35S 100 microcuries

4.2.4. 32P 10 microcuries

4.3. Ship: all materials that cannot be decayed or discharged must be shipped to a low level radioactive waste repository.

4.4. Preparation for Disposal

4.4.1. Packaging

4.4.1.1. Plastic containers not glass

4.4.1.2. Seal the Containers

4.4.1.3. Label Nuclide, date, laboratory and quantity.

4.4.2. Do not mix any short half life material with long (greater than 90 day) half life material. Ever. I mean really ever. Unless you have explicit permission from the RSO. I will charge a flat 100 dollar fee for any such waste unless it has been specifically cleared through my office.

4.4.3. Scintillation Cocktail; all old varieties containing toluene or xylene will be surcharged.

4.4.4. Mixed waste: Do not create a mixed waste without explicit permission from the RSO. A mixed waste is a waste that is both a hazardous chemical waste and a radioactive waste. These are almost impossible to dispose of. Almost any organic solvent, including methyl alcohol, would be considered a hazardous chemical waste. Ethyl alcohol is considered hazardous waste above 24% concentration in aqueous solution.

4.4.5. Make sure that your disposal logs accurately reflect the disposal of radioactive materials.

5. Personal Protection.

5.1. Dosimetry. We require dosimetry devices for anyone using nuclides that are external health hazards. These include 125 I and 32P.

5.2. Personal Protective Equipment

5.2.1. Standard Equipment includes: lab coat, gloves, and goggles

5.3. Laboratory Surveys: Should be performed at the end of each working day when isotopes are used. These surveys should be logged in your manual.

5.4. Leak checking new material: The RSO leak checks all materials except tritiated compounds, at the outer surface of the box and the outer surface of the inner packaging. Once you remove a vial you should check the vial before using the material.

5.5. Shielding, distance, time, quantity. Are manipulable parameters for maintaining exposures ALARA.

5.6. Accident response.

5.6.1. Protect life and health

5.6.2. Safely limit the spread (may include cleaning the material up)

5.6.3. Call RSO (get help 911 or 8-2222)

5.7. Eating and drinking are forbidden in an area cleared for the use of radioactive isotopes.

6. Regulations.

6.1. Pregnancy.

6.1.1. Allowable exposure to fetus = 50 mrem/month or 500 mrem/ pregnancy

6.2. 10 CFR 20 is the federal regulation covering general worker safety.

6.3. R-313-15 Utah regulation covering worker safety and R-313-18 covers notices to workers.

6.4. Security All radioactive materials including radioactive waste must be under the personal supervision of a qualified user or locked up at all times. Period.

6.5. Reporting. Report spills, leaks, or other occurrences to the RSO (8-5779) If you have an emergency, that is imminent or immediate threat to life or health call 911, or 8-2222.

7. Radio toxicity.

7.1. Biological half life, in general the longer the half life the more toxic.

7.2. Target Organ the more concentrated the material the higher the toxicity

7.3. Specific Ionization, the higher the SI or LET the higher the toxicity

7.4. Energy. The higher the energy for a particle, the higher the toxicity.

8. Units Of Measurement.

8.1. roentgen (measure of exposure in air)

8.2. RAD (radiation(or roentgen) absorbed dose) 100 ergs/gram of tissue = 1 rad

8.3. REM (roentgen equivalent man) RAD X Quality factor

8.4. Gray = 100 RAD 1 joule/ kg = 100 RAD

8.5. Sievert = 100 REM Gray X Q factor = 100 REM

8.6. Becquerel = 1 dps

8.7. Coulombs/kg (C/kg) (measure of exposure in air)

8.8. Curie = 3.7 x 1010 dps

9. Instrumentation

9.1. Liquid Scintillation: no losses due to geometry. Material in direct contact with counting medium. Can count tritium.

9.2. Solid Scintillation: Can have high mass detectors for efficiency in counting photons. May detect differences in energy, hence spectrometry possible. Expensive.

9.3. Geiger-Muller Counter. Gas filled chamber, relatively inexpensive, normal instruments cannon detect tritium, about 10 % efficiency for Carbon fourteen.

9.4. Ionization Chamber. Very good for defining exposure (roentgens) generally somewhat expensive,

9.5. Gas Proportional Counter. Can be used for spectrometry, often open window hence can be used for tritium. Low efficiency for photons. Generally expensive.

10. Calculations

10.1. Decay Nt = Noe-0.693t/T where t is the time elapsed and T is the half life.

10.2. 1 mrad = 62,400 MeV per gram and Rule of thumb: 100 beta particles per cm per second = 10 mrad/hr exposure with high energy betas.

Problem calculate the exposure if a thin window gm tube detector gives 30,000 counts per minute the counter has 5 cm2 surface area and 100% counting efficiency.

We can say that 30,000 counts are picked up in a 5 square cm area or we have 6,000 counts per minute through each square centimeter. This is equal to 100 counts per cm per second or about 10 mrad/hr. If you had been given the precise energy of the beta particle then it is a simple matter to convert electron volts to rad and come up with a precise answer. For example 100 beta's per second from 32P with an average energy of 0.7 Mev/beta and a range of 0.8 cm will deposit all of their energy in the first cm of tissue. Thus 100 X 0.7 = 70mev of energy is deposited in one gram of tissue each second (1cm3 soft tissue is about one gram). The rest is a simple conversion problem.

10.3. Dilution Problems. Activity X dilution factor = Activity after dilution

Dilution factor = volume added/volume added + volume present

11. Required Documentation in the laboratory.

11.1. Receipt logs

11.2. Disposal logs

11.3. Survey logs

11.4. Required paperwork for authorization;

11.5. Certification (All authorized users)

11.6. User Authorization Form (PI only)

11.7. Facility Authorization Form (PI only)

RADIATION SAFETY EXAMINATION

1. Which of the following records must be maintained by each laboratory using radioactive materials:

a. Inventory of radioactive material

b. Records of disposal

c. Records of laboratory surveys

e. sealed source leak checks

f. a, c, e

g. a, b, c

2. You are working with tritium and wish to survey your laboratory for contamination, which of the following methods or instruments would be useful? (There may be more than one answer.)

a. Geiger-Mueller Counter

b. Liquid Scintillation Counter

c Solid Scintillation Counter

d. Gas Proportional Counter

e. Ionization Chamber

f. a, d, c,

g. b, d

3. In checking for 32P contamination which of the following methods or instruments could detect a presence of the nuclide?

a. Geiger-Mueller Counter

b. Liquid Scintillation Counter

c Solid Scintillation Counter

d. Gas Proportional Counter

e. Ionization Chamber

f. a, c, d

g. a, b, c, d, e

4. In checking for 125I contamination which of the following methods or instruments would be the most efficient?

a. Geiger-Mueller Counter

b. Open window flow through counter

c Solid Scintillation Counter

d. Gas Proportional Counter

e. Ionization Chamber

f. a, b, e

g. a, b, c, d, e

5. 1000 ml of tritiated water containing 1 Ci 3H is mixed with the water in a tank. A 1 ml sample of water is removed from the tank mixed with appropriate scintillation counting fluid and counted on a scintillation counter. You may disregard quenching effects. The efficiency of the counter is determined to be 55% and the observed count is 5000 counts per minute. What was the volume of water in the tank prior to the addition of the tritiated water?

a. 300,000 liters

b. 242,000 liters

c. 580,900 liters

d. 3,765 liters

e. 9,000 liters

6. ALARA is a term used with respect to radiation safety. Which of the following statements best describes the ALARA concept.

a. Keep the natural background radiation as low as possible

b. Test homes for atypical levels of ambient radon

c. Use all prudent means to reduce exposure to radiation

d. Limit the waste produced when using radioactive material

7. Safety standards for handling radioactive material must be in compliance with The Utah Regulatory Code. The two sections of the code specifically addressing worker safety and notification are:

a. R313-13

b. R313-15

c. R313-17

d. R313-18

e. R313-16

f. a, b

g. b, d

8. In case there is a spill of radioactive material which of the following would not be an important objective?

a. Clean it up as soon as possible.

b. Limit the spread.

c. Protect human life.

d. Call the Radiation Safety Officer if it is during working hours.

e. a, b, c

f. a, b, d

g. a, b, c, d

9. Which of the following would be the most serious external health hazard?

a. 3H

b. 14C

c. 32P

10. Which of the following would have the highest specific ionization in tissue?

a. 3H

b. 14C

c. 32P

d. 125I

11. In which of the following shielding materials will generation of bremsstrahlung be the highest given the same flux of a high energy beta particle beam?

a. Paraffin

b. Copper

c. lead

d. glass

12. The Compton Effect is a means of transferring energy which occurs with:

a. gamma radiation

b. alpha radiation

c Neutrons

d. -Beta radiation

13. Gamma radiation is generally produced in:

a. outer electron orbital

b. inner electron orbital

c. nucleus

d. electrons moving between orb;

14. Which of the following represents an equation demonstrating the decay of 32P ( you may ignore neutrinos and antineutrinos).

a. n + e => p

b. p + e => n

c. n => p + e

d. e+ + e- => energy

e. none of the above

15. You could expect a good thin window geiger counter to have a 2 pi efficiency for 14C beta's of:

a. 5%

b. 10%

c. 25%

d. 50%

16. Which of the following would be appropriate disposal methods for 1 Ci of 14C at BYU?

a. Dump it down the drain.

b. Burn it.

c. Ship it out to a disposal site.

d. Decay in storage.

17. Which of the following would be appropriate disposal methods for 10 mCi of 32P?

a. Dump it down the drain.

b. Burn it.

c. Ship it out to a disposal site.

d. Decay in storage.

18. Which of the following tissues is most sensitive to damage due to ionizing radiation at a given level?

a. skin

b. muscle

c. fat

d. blood cells and their progenitors

19. The Roentgen is defined as the amount of radiation needed to produce a specific number of ion pairs in:

a. tissue.

b. water.

c. air.

d. man.

20. The Gray is equivalent to

a. 100 rad

b. 100 rem

c. 100 R

d. .01 rem

e. .01 R

f. .01 rad

21. In order to convert roentgens to rads you must:

a. determine the average and maximum energy.

b. multiply by the quality factor.

c. know the density of the material

d. none of the above

22. You have 5 mCi of 32P on April 5 and inadvertently forget it until April 29. What is the remaining activity? ( 1/2 life = 14.29 days)

a. 1.25

b. 1.56

c. 2.11

d. 2.50

23. Which of the following is true regarding free radical damage due to ionizing radiation.

a. Since ionizing radiation does so much direct damage free radicals are relatively unimportant

b. There are relatively few molecules in living systems that can become free radicals

c. the OH radical is the most important free radical created by ionizing radiation in biological systems.

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

24. Ionizing radiation can cause:

a. Inactivation of enzymes

b. alterations in DNA

c. alterations in RNA

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

25. Which of the following would be most sensitive to damage caused by ionizing radiation:

a. First trimester fetus

b. 2 year old child

c. 20 year old adult male

d. 80 year old adult female

26. Normal background radiation in the Provo area is likely to cause an exposure of about:

a. 1 rem/year

b. 1 sievert/year

c. 1 rad/year

d. 1 R/ year

e. 200 mrem/year

27. Gamma radiation is:

a. very penetrating due to its lack of mass and charge

b. Has very high specific ionization due to it's high energy

c. best shielded with high atomic number materials

d. not of concern since it does not react with tissue

e. a, b, c

f. a, c

28. Calculate the exposure rate in mrem/hr from a beta field producing a measurement of 100 counts/second with a pancake probe with 20 square centimeters of active surface area and an 80 % efficiency rate. The beta's have an average energy of 695 KeV. You may calculate exposure for the tissue from the surface to one centimeter depth assuming that all of the energy is dissipated in one centimeter. (Hint: 1 erg = 6.24 X 1011 electron volts and soft tissue has unit density, one rad = 100 ergs/gram)

a. 0.25 mrem/hr

b. 1 mrem/hr

c. 10.25 mrem/hr

d. 4.5 rem/hr

e. 5 mrem/hr

29 Given that high energy betas dissipate energy at the rate of about 0.2 MeV/ 0.1 cm traveled in unit densit material, calculate the dose to the first .1 cm of tissue from a high energy beta field as used in problem 28.

a. 10 mrem/hr

b. 0.72 mrem/hr

c. 5 mrem/hr

d. 0.25 mrem/hr

e. 0.55 mrem/hr

30. Which of the following must be labeled with the standard radiation symbol?

a. Room in which 32P is used.

b. Refrigerator in which 14C is stored.

c. Test tube currently in use.

d. A centrifuge contaminated with a radioisotope.

e. a, b, c

f. a, b, d

g. a, b, c, d

31. Which of the following is the permissible annual whole body exposure to ionizing radiation?

a. 100 gray

b. 100 becquerel

c. .05 sievert

d. 125 gray

e. 100 mrem

f. 1.25 rad

32. You are given 1 ml of 32P labeled dATP in solution ( 1% weight/volume). The labeled dATP is has an activity of 0.3 Ci/gram. You are performing an experiment in which the labeled dATP is added to a culture of E.Coli in log phase growth. The cells, weighing 5 grams are harvested and disrupted. Then the DNA from all 5 grams of cells is divided into the plasmid fraction and the chromosomal fraction via biochemical wizardry. Assume 50% incorporation of labeled dATP into the DNA and a 1/10 ratio of plasmid DNA (w/w) to chromosomal DNA. Chromosomal DNA constitutes 1/1000 of the total cell mass. You add one tenth of the total chromosomal DNA from a single spiked culture to a suitable liquid scintillation cocktail and count using LSC. For good results you need at least 5,000 counts per minute from each fraction when counted on a scintillation counter with an efficiency of 95%. You may disregard quenching. How much label will you add to each separate culture in order to assure acceptable results without using excess material?

a. .11 ml

b. .0011 ml

c. .000018 ml

d. .0000020 ml

33. Under our license and Bureau of Radiation Control Rules we are obliged to maintain "adequate security for radioactive materials". What does this mean?

a. Stored radioisotopes must be either locked up or under the direct supervision of a qualified individual.

b. Experiments involving radioisotopes must be under the direct physical supervision of a qualified individual or the door to the laboratory must be locked.

c. Radioactive waste must be locked up or a qualified person must be able to see any tampering with the container at all times

d. all of the above

e. a, b

f. a, c

g. b, c

34. The exposure limit set by regulation for a unborn child would be.

a. 100 mrem/ month

b. 50 mrem/month

c. 5 rem/year

d. 1 rem/year

e. 1 gray/month

f. 1 sievert/month

35. In working with radioactive material what are the manipulable parameters which may be altered to minimize exposure.

a. time, shielding

b. distance

c. quantity

d. a, c

e. a, b

f. a, b, c

36. Protective clothing that should be worn when working with .250 millicuries of 35S includes.

a. gloves

b. lab coat

c. eye protection

d. all of the above

e. a, b

f. b, c

g. a, c

37. By virtue of both BYU policies and federal and state rules or regulations you are required to wear personal dosimetry badges whenever you are working with significant quantities of:

a. 32P

b. 125I

c. 3H

d. 14C

e. a, b

f. a, d

g a, b, d

38. The LD50 in humans for a single whole body ionizing radiation dose would be approximately:

a: .5 sieverts

b. 5 sieverts

c. 50 sieverts

d. 500 sieverts

39. The minimum radiation absorbed dose to the skin sufficient to cause erythema would be about:

a. 1 gray

b. 10 grays

c. 100 grays

d. 10 sieverts

40. Which of the following activities would be prohibited in a laboratory using radioactive material:

a. computer use

b. sink disposal of radioactive waste

c. eating or drinking

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

41. You should survey your laboratory:

a. once each month

b. only when the RSO indicates that it is necessary

c. at the end of each day that radioactive material is used

d. none of the above

42. To prepare radioactive waste for disposal you should:

a. remove all radioactive tags from tubes and containers

b. place dry waste in a plastic bag and seal the bag

c. not mix long half life waste with short (less than 65 days) half life waste.

d. label the waste with the date, nuclide, and quantity in millicuries.

e. use plastic containers for liquid waste.

f. all of the above

g. a, b, d

h. b, c, d

Moisture and Density Gauge Training Outline.

Biological Effects

DNA may be chemically altered. DNA is the material inside each cell that carries the blueprints for the design and manufacture of all cellular components. Making changes in the DNA tends to damage all of the protein made from that DNA. Due to this, radiation damage to cells that are rapidly making protein causes more damage than radiation damage to cells that are not making a lot of protein. Fat cells tend to be inactive while bone marrow cells tend to be very active. Therefor it is no surprise that the precursors to red and white blood cells in the bone marrow are some of the cellular constituents most sensitive to radiation damage.

Protein bonds may be altered or broken. The molecules that make up the structural and chemical machinery of the cell can be directly damaged either by ionization or attack by free radicals.

Free Radicals alter the structure of biomolecules. The most important free radical due to ionizing radiation is created when H - O - H is ionized to H - O - H+ + e- the H-O-H+ then goes to H+ and OH (this is called the hydroxyl radical). The hydroxyl radical can be very damaging to biological systems. Two hydroxyl radicals can combine to form hydrogen peroxide (OH + OH H2O2) which allows the damage due to free radical formation to be transported beyond the site of the initial radiation exposure.

Acute Effects
Erythema may result above an absorbed dose of 100 rad to the skin.
Alterations in the appearance of circulating white blood cells can be seen above a dose of 25 - 50 rem.
The LD50 for humans is about 400 rem whole body dose.

Chronic Effects (stochastic or random effects)

Mutagen A mutagen causes alterations to DNA. Ionizing radiation has been demonstrated to cause DNA alterations.
Teratogen A teratogen causes abnormalities in the unborn fetus. High doses of ionizing radiation can be expected to have a teratogenic effect.
Carcinogen There is little or no data linking exposures below 5 rem to increased cancer risk. At doses above 40 rem there have been studies linking exposure to ionizing radiation to increases in cancer. In particular high exposures to ionizing radiation have been linked to leukemia with a latency period of approximately 5 years.

Dose Response Curve. Understand that regulations are based on a linear no threshold response curve. Below doses allowed by regulations we have no unambiguous experimental data that defines the risk of chronic effects and no acute effects. We assume that chronic effects exist and that they are a function of dose. A stochastic effect is an effect whose severity is not related to dose and whose probability of occurrence is related to dose.

Normal background doses vary from one geographic location to another. All people receive ionizing radiation from potassium 40, as well as carbon 14 and tritium. These are all naturally occurring nuclides that are in the environment. In addition cosmic radiation and radiation from building materials contaminated with naturally occurring nuclides give us a constant exposure to high energy photons. Total natural background exposures to all of these is in the range of 200 to 400 mrem/year. If you live at high altitude your dose from cosmic radiation can increase by 100 to 200 mrem/year.

External and internal hazards. Generally all alpha and beta particles with energy less than 50 KEV will not penetrate the dead layers of skin to cause direct physiological damage from outside the body. The materials can do damage if in direct contact with living tissue. High energy beta emitters and photons and neutrons do present a hazard from outside the body. That is they can penetrate the skin and cause ionization from outside the body.

Radio toxicity.

Biological half life, in general the longer the half life the more toxic.
Target Organ the more concentrated the material the higher the toxicity
Specific Ionization, the higher the SI or LET the higher the toxicity
Energy. The higher the energy for a particle, the higher the toxicity.

Personal Protection.

Dosimetry. We require dosimetry devices for anyone using nuclides that are external health hazards. These include photon and neutron emitters. Note; special badges for neutrons should be ordered when operating a gauge.

Each sealed source should be leak checked at 6 month intervals.

Shielding, distance, time, quantity. Are manipulable parameters for maintaining exposures ALARA.
Accident response.
Protect life and health
Safely limit the spread (may include cleaning the material up)
Call RSO

Regulations.

Pregnancy.
Allowable exposure to fetus = 50 mrem/month or 500 mrem/ pregnancy
10 CFR 20 is the federal regulation covering general worker safety.
R-313-15 Utah regulation covering worker safety and R-313-18 covers notices to workers.
Security All radioactive materials including radioactive waste must be under the personal supervision of a qualified user or locked up at all times. Period.
Reporting. Report spills, leaks, or other occurrences to the RSO (8-5779) If you have an emergency, that is imminent or immediate threat to life or health call 911, or 8-2222.
Exposure of a dosimetry device even if it is not on a person must be reported.

Department of Transportation Regulations

The shipping table is the basis of all hazardous material shipping instructions.
Shipping Papers must be properly made. A correct shipping paper for a radioactive material must give the following information:
24 hour emergency response number
Emergency Response information
Quantity of the material in becquerels or curies
RQ if there is a reportable quantity
Basic shipping description as given in the first four columns of the shipping table. Proper shipping name, hazard class, ID number, and packing group.
The transportation Index
The form.
The activity
The label category

Marking:
RQ
Proper shipping name and identification number
Consignee or consignor's name and address
If over 110 lbs must have the weight of the package
Type A or Type B marked on the package

Labels
White label for materials with radiation level at the surface of the package less than 0.5 mrem/hr
Yellow 2 label for materials with a transport index less than 1 and a surface activity no greater than 50 mrem/hr
Yellow 3 label TI greater than one and surface activity over 50 mrem/hr.

Units Of Measurement.

roentgen (measure of exposure in air)
RAD (radiation(or roentgen) absorbed dose) 100 ergs/gram of tissue = 1 rad
REM (roentgen equivalent man) RAD X Quality factor
Gray = 100 RAD 1 joule/ kg = 100 RAD
Sievert = 100 REM Gray X Q factor = 100 REM
Becquerel = 1 dps
Coulombs/kg (C/kg) (measure of exposure in air)
Curie = 3.7 x 1010 dps

Types of Ionizing Radiation.

ß origin and characteristics: Origin of a true beta is the nucleus. The beta has low mass but a high charge.

origin and characteristics: origin in the nucleus, usually very high energy, and very short range. Hence high LET. Quality factor may be 20.

The neutron is one of the two basic components of the nucleus. The neutron has no net charge and a atomic weight of approximately one. Thus it's interaction with matter is due to mass attraction or actual collisions with matter. Neutrons may interact with other nuclei either in inelastic scattering or elastic scattering;

Elastic scattering like a billiard ball occurs with low atomic weight nuclei

inelastic scattering occurs when some of the energy of the collision is transferred to the scattering nucleus and emitted as photons. You can think of this as a reaction in which the neutron is absorbed by the nucleus and then emitted with any energy difference accounted for by photon emission.

The neutron tends to penetrate material well. It is generally an external health threat. That is it can cause damage from outside the body.

Once the neutron thermalizes (looses kinetic energy) it is absorbed by a surrounding nucleus. This can result in formation of an unstable compound. If so emission of beta particles and or photons is possible.

The neutron has a Q factor of anything from one to over 20. Generally this corresponds to the energy of the neutron.

Photons (gamma rays and x-rays)

Gamma rays and x-rays are basically the same beasties. A gamma ray is a photon just like the visible light photons that we are familiar with. But the gamma ray or x-ray has much more energy. These photons can interact with electrons from atoms and molecules and knock these electrons off their atoms. There are two prime interactions that accomplish this result:

Compton Effect - The Compton effect is the favored reaction if the photon has high energy and the incident atom has a low atomic number (it is very light like hydrogen). In the Compton effect a photon interacts with an electron giving the electron enough energy to 'ionize' or be ejected from it's orbital. The photon then changes direction up to 180 degrees and looses some energy.

Photoelectric effect - The photoelectric effect is favored by low energy photons interacting with high atomic number nuclei. In this reaction a photon interacts with an electron and the electron is ejected from it's orbital. The photon is totally absorbed.

Gamma rays have basically no charge and no mass. Thus they penetrate into matter very well. They are considered external health threats.
The Q factor for photons of less than one million electron volts is 1. These are the photons most commonly seen in medical procedures and associated with density gauges.

Time, Distance and Shielding

If one is dealing with neutrons it should be remembered that if a neutron hits a hydrogen atom it will undergo elastic scattering. This is similar to two billiard balls hitting each other. Energy is conserved and direction is changed. Of course even though energy is conserved energy may be transmitted to the hydrogen atom. The proton of the hydrogen atom is positively charged and will not travel very far in any non-vacuum. Also neutrons can interact with a nucleus via inelastic scattering in which the neutron could be considered to have been absorbed by the incident nucleus after which the neutron is thrown out of the nucleus often at a lower energy and accompanied by the release of gamma rays.

Principle of operation

Moisture density gauges are based on the fact that hydrogen atoms scatter neutrons. Thus a neutron detector is placed near a neutron source. The neutrons scattered back to the detector after being scattered by hydrogen atoms can be used to estimate the amount of hydrogen in the surrounding material.

Density is gauged by the attenuation of gamma rays. Since the half value layer or the thickness of a particular material necessary to cut a photon beam to one half of it's original intensity, one can measure the intensity of a particular photon beam after passing through a known thickness of a material and calculate the approximate mass of the material through which the beam traveled.

RADIATION SAFETY EXAMINATION

Nuclear Gauge Users

Name Date

(This is an open book examination. You are encouraged to use your notes, books and handouts from the Gauge Safety Course or any other materials available to you. You may not take this as a team test or collaborate with other students. A passing score is 80%)

1. ALARA is a term used with respect to radiation safety. Which of the following statements best describes the ALARA concept.

a. Keep the natural background radiation as low as possible

b. Test homes for atypical levels of ambient radon

c. Use all prudent means to reduce exposure to radiation

d. Limit the waste produced when using radioactive material

2. Safety standards for handling radioactive material must be in compliance with The Utah Regulatory Code. The two sections of the code specifically addressing worker safety and notification are:

a. R313-13 and R313-15

b. R313-15 and R313-18

c. R313-17 and R313-18

d. R313-18 and R313-15

e. R313-16 and R313-15

3. In case there is an incident involving loss or damage to a gauge you should.

a. Call 911 on the BYU Campus.

b. Call 422-2222 from off campus.

c. Limit exposure by isolating the area

d. All of the above.

e. a, b

f. a, c

4. Which of the following would be the most serious external health hazard?

a. 3H

b. 14C

c. 137Cs

d. 241Am

5. Which of the following would have the highest specific ionization in tissue?

a. 3H

b. 14C

c.137Cs

d.241Am

6. In which of the following shielding materials will generation of bremsstrahlung be the highest given the same flux of a high energy beta particle beam?

a. Paraffin

b. Copper

c. lead

d. glass

7. The Compton Effect is a means of transferring energy which occurs with:

a. gamma radiation

b. alpha radiation

c Neutrons

d. -Beta radiation

8. Gamma radiation is generally produced in:

a. outer electron orbital

b. inner electron orbital

c. nucleus

d. electrons moving between orb;

9. Which of the following tissues is most sensitive to damage due to ionizing radiation at a given level?

a. skin

b. muscle

c. fat

d. blood cells and their progenitors

10. The Roentgen is defined as the amount of radiation needed to produce a specific number of ion pairs in:

a. tissue.

b. water.

c. air.

d. man.

11. The Gray is equivalent to

a. 100 rad

b. 100 rem

c. 100 R

d. .01 rem

e. .01 R

f. .01 rad

12. In order to convert roentgens to rads you must:

a. determine the average and maximum energy.

b. multiply by the quality factor.

c. know the density

d. none of the above

13. You have 5 mCi of 32P on April 5 and inadvertently forget it until April 29. What is the remaining activity? ( ½ life = 14.29 days)

a. 1.25

b. 1.56

c. 2.11

d. 2.50

14. Which of the following is true regarding free radical damage due to ionizing radiation.

a. Since ionizing radiation does so much direct damage free radicals are relatively unimportant

b. There are relatively few molecules in living systems that can become free radicals

c. the OH radical is the most important free radical created by ionizing radiation in biological systems.

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

15. Ionizing radiation can cause:

a. Inactivation of enzymes

b. alterations in DNA

c. alterations in RNA

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

16. Which of the following would be most sensitive to damage caused by ionizing radiation:

a. First trimester fetus

b. 2 year old child

c. 20 year old adult male

d. 80 year old adult female

17. Normal background radiation in the Provo area is likely to cause an exposure of about:

a. 1 rem/year

b. 1 sievert/year

c. 1 rad/year

d. 1 R/ year

e. 200 mrem/year

18. Gamma radiation is:

a. very penetrating due to its lack of mass and charge

b. Has very high specific ionization due to it's high energy

c. best shielded with high atomic number materials

d. not of concern since it does not react with tissue

e. a, b, c

f. a, c

19. John is using a gauge, his eyes are four feet from the source, Tom is observing John his eyes are 12 feet from the source. You may assume at this distance the source is essentially a point source. If the exposure rate to John's eye is 0.5 mrem/hr what is the exposure rate to Tom's eye.

a. .16 mrem/hr

b. .055 mrem/hr

c. .25 mrem/hr

d. None of the above

20. 241 Am decays via (choose the principle route of decay only)

a. Alpha emission

b. Beta emission

c. Photon emission

d. Neutron emission

21. Which of the following must be labeled with the standard radiation symbol?

a.. Gauge Itself

b.. Gauge Shipping Container

c.. Room in which the Gauge is Stored

d.. Building in which the Gauge is Stored

e. a, b, c

f. a, b, d

g. a, b, c, d

22. Which of the following is the permissible annual whole body exposure to ionizing radiation?

a. 100 gray

b. 100 Becquerel

c. .05 sievert

d. 125 gray

e. 100 mrem

f. 1.25 rad

23. Under our license and Bureau of Radiation Control Rules we are obliged to maintain "adequate security for radioactive materials". What does this mean?

a. Stored radioisotopes must be either locked up or under the direct supervision of a qualified individual.

b. The gauge must be properly braced and blocked inside a transport vehicle and the vehicle must be locked whenever the gauge is not under the personal supervision of the qualified operator.

c. The gauge case is locked whenever it is not under the direct supervision of a qualified user.

d. all of the above

e. a, b

f. a, c

g. b, c

24. The exposure limit set by regulation for a unborn child would be.

a. 100 mrem/ month

b. 50 mrem/month

c. 5 rem/year

d. 1 rem/year

e. 1 gray/month

f. 1 sievert/month

25. In working with radioactive material what are the manipulable parameters which may be altered to minimize exposure.

a. time, shielding

b. distance

c. quantity

d. a, c

e. a, b

f. a, b, c

26. By virtue of both BYU policies and federal and state rules or regulations you are required to wear personal dosimetry badges whenever you are working with a nuclear gauge.

a. True

b. False:

27. The LD50 in humans for a single whole body ionizing radiation dose would be approximately:

a: .5 sieverts

b. 5 sieverts

c. 50 sieverts

d. 500 sieverts

28. The minimum radiation absorbed dose to the skin sufficient to cause erythema would be about:

a. 1 gray

b. 10 grays

c. 100 grays

d. 10 sieverts

29. A sealed source should be leak checked every::

a. Year

b. Six Months

c. Three Months

d. none of the above

30. The "linear no threshold' model of biological damage suggests

a. That if exposure to ionizing radiation is doubled the risk of cancer is doubled

b. That there is no absolutely safe exposure

c. That hormesis is likely with ionizing radiation at low doses

d. All of the above

e. a and b

f. a and c

g. b and c

31 Neutrons have a quality factor that depends upon the

a. Material that it hits

b. Energy of the neutron

c. The collateral gamma radiation

d. All of the above

e. a and b

f. a and c

g. b and c

32. Neutrons can be

a. More than 10 times as damaging as gamma rays for the same absorbed dose

b. Half as damaging as gamma rays given the same absorbed dose

c. Will cause about the same biological effect as beta radiation given the same deposited energy per gram of tissue.

d. All of the above

e. a and b

f. a and c

g. b and c

33. 137Cs:

a. Is a beta emitter with average beta energy of about 170 kev

b. Decays into 137Ba. 137Ba decays with the release of a 661 kev gamma ray

` c. Has a half life of about 30 years

d. All of the above

e. a and b

f. a and c

g b and c

34. Neutrons undergo

A Elastic Scattering

b. Inelastic scattering

c. Compton scattering

d. All of the above

e. a and b

f. a and c

g, b and c

35. 241Am

a. Emits alpha particles

b. Emits beta particles

c. Emits photons

d. Emits neutrons

e. All of the above

f. a and b

g. a and c

h. a and d

I c and d

36. A gauge may be transported with a white label if;

a. The TI is less than 1

b. The TI is less than 0.5

c. The TI is less than 0.1

d. The TI is = 0

37. The reportable quantity (RQ) for 241Am would be

a. 1 millicuries

b. 10 millicuries

c. 100 millicuries

d. 1000 millicuries

38. The shipping paper for a gauge must include which of the following

a. Form

b. activity

c. Basic description

d. 24 hour emergency response telephone number

e. All of the above

f. a and b

g. a and c

39. The basic shipping description is

a. Proper shipping name, packing group, hazard class, ID number

b. Proper shipping name, nuclide, form and activity

c. Proper shipping name, hazard class, ID number, and packing group

d. Transportation index, form, activity, proper shipping name

40. Geiger Mueller tubes are generally good instruments for detecting neutrons

a. True

b. False

41. DOT regulations specify that labels for radioactive materials in transportation must be

a. On the top and at least one side of the package

b. On a single side of the package

c. On two opposing sides of the package

d. On the top and bottom of the package

42. The Department of Transportation requires that anyone involved in the transportation of hazardous materials be trained and tested at a minimum of once every:

a. Year

b. Two years

c. Three years

d. Four years

43. A 'hazmat employee' under DOT regulations is anyone who;

a packages hazardous materials for transportation

b. Transports hazardous materials

c. Fills out shipping papers for hazardous materials to be transported

d. All of the above

e. a and b

f. a and c

g. b and c

44. A moisture gauge works by measuring:

a. Photons scattered by oxygen

b. Photons scattered by hydrogen

c. Neutrons scattered by oxygen

d. Neutrons scattered by hydrogen

45. Density gauges work by measuring

a. Photons

b. Beta particles

c. Neutrons

d. Alpha particles

46 The main difference between a photon and a gamma ray is

a. The energy of the gamma is higher than the photon

b, The gamma has more particle like behavior than the photon

c. A gamma ray is a photon

47. When transporting a gauge on public roads you must have:

a. Proper shipping papers

b. Specification packaging

c. Correctly marked package

d. Gauge must be properly blocked and braced

e. All of the above

f. a and c

g. a and d

h. None of the above

48. When using a gauge on Federal Land or in any state other than Utah you must:

a. Make sure that the NRC rules permit americium on federal land

b. Complete your measurements within 24 hours

c. Obtain a reciprocity agreement

d. Our license permits the use of the gauge by an approved user in any location.

49. When selling a nuclear gauge it is permissible to;

a. Transfer the gauge to anyone

b. Transfer the gauge to any other university

c. Transfer the gauge to someone licensed to possess the gauge (but only if we have a copy of the license and the RSO is notified of the proposed transfer prior to the transfer).

50. Rules governing the transportation of radioactive material can be found in:

a. 40 CFR part 261

b. 40 CFR part 265

c. R313-18

d. 49 CFR part 173

51. Which of the following transport routes requires appropriate shipping papers, packaging, and labeling for a gauge.

a. Transport between the Clyde building and the WIDB on the sidewalk

b. Transport between the Clyde building and the Grant Building on the road past the Benson Building.

c. Transport from the WIDB to the Ellsworth Buiding along University Ave.

d Transport from the WIDB to the Spanish Fork Farm on Highway 89

e. All of the above

f. b, c, and d

g. only c and d